Gabrielle Ewing
Solent University | 2022
ABSTRACT
Previous research has studied the effects of ‘fitspiration’ content on body image amongst female aged collegiate students, however, there is lack of research that has looked at the effects of ‘fitspiration’ content on female collegiate athletes. According to existing research females, and especially female athletes, are more prone to having a negative relationship with their body. A total of five recently graduated collegiate female athletes were interviewed to better understand the impact that Instagram fitness influencers have on their attitudes towards their own body image. A content analysis was conducted of the top three female Instagram fitness influencers to help structure the interview, which included a photo elicitation portion. The participants answers about their feelings towards their body were evaluated and compared from pre to post exposure of fitness influencer content. The study determined that athletes’ attitudes about their body image were negatively affected when they did not feel overwhelmingly confident about their body image prior to photo elicitation. Furthermore, athletes were not immune to comparing themselves to the influencers shown to them despite differing fitness goals as athletes and determining that the influencer content was inauthentic, unrealistic and unreliable.
Introduction
There are over 332,000,000 residents living in the United States of America (United States Census Bureau 2022). Of those 332 million people nearly half of them have active Instagram accounts (Statistica, 2021). In fact, the average time spent per day on Instagram by an individual person is 53 minutes (Yaqub, 2022). As Instagram and other social media platforms rise in popularity and become a part of our everyday lives, researchers have become increasingly interested in its effects on society. While social media does have the power to do good, recent studies have exposed the negative effects that certain social media content can have on individuals’ mental health.
‘Fitspiration’ or ‘fitspo,’ an abbreviation of the phrase ‘fitness inspiration’ is a trending topic on Instagram. Over 19.5 million posts with the hashtag “fitspiration” and 74.5 million posts with the hashtag “fitspo” were found after a quick search of each hashtag on Instagram. Fitspiration can consist of content, images, videos, quotes or advice about fitness and nutrition (Raggat et al. 2018) and is often aimed towards a female audience (Tiggemann and Zaccardo cited in Slater, Varsani, and Diedrichs 2017). The intention may seem positive; however, research has shown that this type of content advertises objectifying images that promotes a specific female body type that is thin and athletic (Tiggemann and Zaccardo cited in Slater, 2017) and commonly portrays “several harmful themes” (Carrotte and Prichard; Tiggeman and Zaccardo cited in Raggatt et al. 2018).
Experimental studies suggest that body dissatisfaction is increased among female collegiate students when exposed to fitspiration images (Tiggemann and Zaccardo; Robinson et al.; Prichard et al. cited in Raggat et al. 2018). A study conducted by Bowles, Walsh and Andre (2021) supports this claim. Bowles et. El. (2021) surveyed 361 college aged students. Of the 361 participants, 203 reported “fitspiration influencers made them feel worse about themselves.” Among the 203 that reported negative feelings of self, due to fitspiration influencers, 89% were female (Bowles et al. 2021).
Instagram along with other social media platforms have coined the term “social media influencer.” A social media influencer is someone who has gained fame through a large social media followership on one or multiple platforms and can have significant influence on their followers (Kim and Kim, 2022). Amongst the wide variety of social media influencers, each one has a niche for targeting a specific audience. Many social media influencers have used fitspiration as their focus and are referred to as ‘fitness influencers.’ Influencers have the power to significantly effect consumer behavior (Lim et al. cited in Bowles, Walsh, and Andre 2021) and fitness influencers push content and promote products and services related to fitness, such as, workout videos, body transformation photos, recipe ideas, supplements, gym wear, etc. This is concerning considering that fitspiration has shown to have a negative effect on women’s body image (Boepple et al.; Boepple and Thompson, Tiggemann and Zaccardo cited in Bowles, Walsh, and Andre 2021).
Fitspiration is largely focused on appearance and physique (Boeppe et al. cited in Raggat et al. 2018) rather than other components of exercise such as strength, flexibility, mobility or other general health benefits. Fitspiration aims to embody a “healthy ideal,” and claims to promote a healthy lifestyle, however, the ideal promoted by the fitness inspiration movement is still “underpinned by aesthetic perfection” (Raggat et al. 2018). There is a lack of diversity, inclusivity, and representation of various body types among fitness inspiration content (Hinz et. Al., 2021).
Unfortunately, aesthetic and physique are often prioritized when advertising health and fitness on other platforms as well, including sports media. Sports media regularly promotes the “femininity” and “heterosexuality” of female athletes over emphasizing their athletic competence and sport performance abilities (Daniels and Warren; Weber and Barker-Ruchti cited in Kane, LaVoi and Fink 2013). According to Swami, Steadman, and Tovée (2009) female athletes may be at higher risk of body image dissatisfaction in comparison to non-athletes. Athletes may be exposed to sociocultural pressures underpinned by sport specific body type ideals (Reel et al.; Thompson and Sherman cited in Kantanista et al. 2018).
The mental wellbeing of individuals who suffer from body image dissatisfaction is concerning because research shows that body dissatisfaction is directly related to the development of eating disorders (Goldschmidt et al. cited in Bowles, Walsh and Andre 2021). Furthermore, athletes are not immune to this effect. A study conducted by de Oliveira et. al. (2017) measured the relationship of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction among 101 female athletes and found that body dissatisfaction was a predictor of eating disorders. Furthermore, Petrie and Greenleaf (2012) identified the same correlation among female athletes. According to Kastanista et al. (2018) athletes are more “prone to body image distortion and eating disorders” than the general population. This is concerning considering the strenuous physical and mental demands that sport, especially elite sport, requires from athletes.
Review of Literature
The Benefits and Downfalls of Fitness Influencers
Fitness influencer’s purpose is to connect with their followers through promoting workouts, creating nutrition plans, advertising supplements and encouraging what they deem as healthy living habits through their social media platforms. When considering the lifestyles of average American’s, there can be benefits that come from viewing and engaging with fitness influencer content. Moorhead et al. presented a systematic review of the benefits of social media and health. This review identified several key benefits that include increased social interactions, greater availability and increased accessibility to shared health information, accessibility and encouragement for peer, social, or emotional support, public health surveillance, and the potential to influence health policy (Duplaga 2020). Another study conducted by Raggat et al. (2018) surveyed 180 people, of which 150 were women. The survey found that 90.3% of the participants felt that fitspiration content inspired them to exercise or eat healthy. Participants also reported feeling a sense of community and support among the other like-minded individuals interested in fitspiration (Raggat et al. 2018). Furthermore, engaging with the fitspiration trend reportedly gave participants greater accessibility to workout ideas, healthy recipes, and increased their knowledge about fitness, exercise, nutrition, and health (Raggat et al. 2018).
Despite the benefits fitness influencers may have on society there is legitimate concern about the quality and accuracy of health and fitness information being shared. Influencers of any sort, including fitness influencers are not legally required to have certifications, degrees or specific qualifications within the exercise, nutrition, or health industry. The Raggat et al. (2018) study found that this caused skepticism and concern from participants about false or inaccurate information being relayed by the influencers. Additionally, participants felt many fitness influencers are “uneducated and underqualified” (Raggat et al. 2018). Misinformation or inaccurate depictions of health and fitness from fitness influencer can have a negative effect on the physical and mental health of the individuals consuming their content and accepting their advice as truth. When followers of fitspiration content are unable to achieve the same image that the influencers portray, for themselves, it can have a detrimental effect on their body image. Participants of the Raggat et al. (2018) study even admitted to having made the correlation that being healthy meant looking healthy. They felt “the ideal appearance, as portrayed by fitspiration images, equated to optimal health, fitness and strength” Raggat et al. (2018). Followers of fitspiration content may have a warped perception of health and therefore adapt negative feelings of self-worth and body satisfaction. While fitness influencers may have some benefits, they also put their followers at risk by “reinforcement of an ideal, attractive body type that is also perceived to be healthy, and also providing misinformation about what it is to look and be healthy” (Raggat et al. 2018).
Depiction of Female Athletes in the Media
Sports media focuses its attention on male sports and male athletes, women in sport receive far less media coverage. When the media does cover female sports and female athletes there is often an emphasis on their image. Women in sport get portrayed as sexualized objects rather than athletes (Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles and ESPN; APA; Messner and Cooky; Tucker Center for Research on Girls & Women in Sport cited in Daniels 2010). The media can have a negative effect on female athletes body image by focusing on their aesthetic and physique instead of their accolades, athletic abilities, and performance skills.
A cross sectional study by Daniels (2021) examined the effect of sexualized images of female athletes on 258 girls aged 13-18 and 171 women aged 18-22. Participants in this study who were exposed to images of the sexualized athlete were more likely to compare and self-objectify than participants who were shown images focused on the female athlete’s athletic performance (Daniels 2021). Furthermore, the girls and women who viewed the sexualized images made excessive comments on their appearance and “sexiness.” Additionally, they made negative comparisons to their own body image (Daniels 2021).
Theory
Social Comparison Theory
There are several potential theories that may support understanding topics such as body image and body dissatisfaction, however, this study was analyzed through the lens of social comparison theory. Social comparison theory is the theory that individuals will compare themselves to others as a way to evaluate their own lives (Smith 2016), often times without realizing it (Festinger cited in Smith 2016). Evaluation can consist of comparing opinions, abilities, lifestyle, and/or self-image to other individuals.
Social Comparison Theory: Women and the Media
Existing literature of studies aiming to understand the relationship between media and body image have revealed significant correlations between thin media images and body dissatisfaction (Harrison; Taylor et al.; Turner et al. cited in Swami, Steadman and Tovée 2009). This phenomenon is particularly common among women who are frequently exposed to media images and engage in social comparison (Botta; Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas, and Williams; Thompson et al. cited in Swami, Steadman and Tovée 2009).
Social Comparison Theory and Social Media Fitspiration
Bowles, Walsh and Andre (2021) conducted a survey study of 361 undergraduate students. This study analyzed the effect of fitspiration content on body image. Participants were shown fitspiration images and asked questions related to the images presented to them. Results from the survey found that 56% of participants felt worse about themselves after viewing the fitspiration content (Bowles, Walsh and Andre 2021). Negative body image after exposure to fitspiration images can be attributed to general media representation of ideal body images. This is consistent with Tiggemann and Slater’s (2017) research which examined 438 high school girls and discovered a correlation between the amount of time spent on social media websites and body dissatisfaction (Tiggemann and Slater cited in Bowles, Walsh and Andre 2021). The modern western ideal body image is “unattainable for the majority of females” and because of social comparison theory many females of any age will feel “dissatisfied with themselves and their bodies after viewing” images that only represent a specific idealistic body type (Daniels 2010).
Research Gap & Purpose of Study
Research Gap Amongst Current Literature
There is a large body of work that seeks to understand the effects the media, including social media, can have on body dissatisfaction among women of all ages. Specifically, research has been conducted which exploits the correlation between fitspiration and negative body image. Additionally, a substantial amount of research examines the relationship between the sport medias portrayal of women in sport and its effects on women, including female athletes. There is a lack of research that explores the relationship between social media fitness inspiration content and its effects on female athletes.
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact that female Instagram fitness influencers have on female collegiate athlete’s body image. The main objective of this study was to understand if attitudes towards body image of female athletes changed negatively or positively or stayed the same after exposure to fitness influencer content. To support the main objective there were three secondary objectives. Firstly, the content analysis. The objective of the content analysis was to identify common themes among the top three female Instagram fitness influencers most recent content. The next objective was to identify the participants perceptions and feelings towards fitness influencers before, during, and after photo elicitation. Lastly, the third supporting objective was to determine if collegiate athletic experience plays a role in athletes’ attitudes towards fitness influencer content.
Methodology
The research was conducted through a constructivist ontological lens and heavily influenced by constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014). The general term, ontology refers to the “study of being” and asks, “what is the nature of reality?” (Phipps 2021). However, when specifically considering constructivist ontology, this type of ontology presents the idea that reality is a subjective experience determined in various ways depending on the individual (Phipps 2021). Underpinning this research with a constructivist ontological approach determined the use of qualitative research methods. These methods include a media content analysis to aid in constructing interview questions, interview questions as the main form of data collection, and thematic analysis for analysing the qualitative data collected through the interviews.
Sample
After receiving ethical approval from Solent University, a total of twelve National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and Division II female athletes were recruited to participate in this study. Athletes were purposely selected by the primary researcher due to their potential expertise in this particular study (Carmichael and Cunningham, 2017). Of the twelve that were originally recruited, three decided not to participate due to sensitive material presented in the interview questions. The other four were disqualified based on specific criteria. Participants were excluded if they were more than 12 months post-graduation, if they participated for less than two seasons at the NCAA Division I or II level, or if they only participated at the NCAA Division III level.
The final sample consisted of five former National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I and Division II female athletes. Participants graduated from their respective Universities in 2021 or 2022, therefore each participant has participated in sport as an NCAA athlete within the last 12 months from the date of their interview. Ages ranged from 22-24 years of age. Sports played among the five participants were softball, basketball, volleyball, and soccer. All participants played a minimum of three years at the NCAA Division I or Division II level.
All participants were given a participation information sheet, which gave them a detailed outline of the research project and their role within the research. Participants were also given a signed consent form to complete, which confirmed their voluntary and anonymous participation with option to withdraw at any time during the study.
Data Collection Procedures
Data collection was a two-step process. Firstly, a media content analysis was conducted to determine the top three female Instagram fitness influencers in the United States. The content analysis identified similar trends between each influencers content for the purpose of structuring the interview questions. Part two of the data collection process was a semi structured interview via video chat.
Content Analysis
A media content analysis was conducted to identify common themes among the Instagram profiles of the top three female Instagram fitness influencers in the United States (Holsti, 1969 cited in Stemler, 2000, and Macnamara, 2005). The media content analysis was conducted on June 8, 2022, five days prior to the first interview to ensure relevance. Several sources (Western, Geyser, 2021, and Starngage, 2022) were used to determine whom the top three female Instagram fitness influencer were.
Once influencers were identified, the nine most recent posts were taken from each influencers page for analysis. The posts consisted of photos, Instagram reels, and videos. All content was cross referenced between the three influencers and common themes were identified. Two categories were created based on the identified themes. The first category was “physique focus,” represented by a single photo where each influencer was posed in a way that showed off their figure and exposed a lot of skin. The second category was “workout with me,” represented by an Instagram reel where the influencer created a workout routine that their followers could do either at home or at the gym. These photos and reels were used as part of the interview questions. A screen shot of each influencer’s first four rows of content were also used in the interview to give the interviewee a better understanding of each influencer’s platform and Instagram persona.
Interview Questions
Semi structured interviews (Cohen, D. and Crabtree, B., 2006) were conducted via virtual google video call with all five participants. Interviews lasted between 25-45 minutes long and were transcribed using an automated transcription application. Audio was also recorded by the primary researcher’s cellular device as a backup. Once transcriptions were cross checked for accuracy and edited accordingly the audio recording was permanently deleted from the primary researcher’s cellular device. A predetermined interview questionnaire was used by the primary researcher during the interview. The primary researcher also asked follow-up questions when necessary to collect additional information relevant to the research topic.
The questionnaire used photo elicitation (Bailey, Dagenais, and Gammage, 2021) supported by imagery contracted from the content analysis in the form of photos and videos. The interviewees were shown one photo, one video, and a screenshot of an Instagram profile from each of the top three female Instagram fitness influencers in the United States. In total the interviewees viewed nine images or videos. Each time a new photo or video was shown, the interviewee was asked three questions, 1) What are your initial thoughts about this photo/video/profile? 2) How does this photo/video/profile make you feel about yourself? 3) What overall message does this photo/video/profile project to its audience? Prior to photo elicitation, as well as directly after, the interviewee’s asked to describe how they felt about their current body image. This information gave the primary research key insight into understanding how Instagram fitness influencers affect female athletes body image.
The participants identities were protected by assigning an alphabetical letter to each participants verbatim transcription instead of using their first and last names. Any information that may have led to identification of a participant was removed from the transcription.
Data Analysis Procedures
Data analysis was conducted with a constructivist approach by utilizing a coding technique to identify themes within the data (Saldaña, 2016 cited in Carmichael and Cunningham, 2017). After all five interviews were completed and transcribed each interview transcription was reviewed individually. Quotes of significance were pulled from each interview and entered into an excel spreadsheet.
Coding was a two-step process. Firstly, quotes were organized into two sections: 1) “General,” which consisted of quotes prior to the photo elicitation portion of the interview and 2) “Imagery,” which consisted of quotes pulled from the photo elicitation portion, as well as post photo elicitation exposure. Each quote was given a code in the form of a word or phrase (Corbin and Strauss, 2015 cited in Carmichael and Cunningham, 2017). Quotes were also assigned an alphabetic letter congruent to the alphabetical letter designated to each participants transcription, in order to identify who said what.
After the initial coding process, the second step was to identify commonalities between the codes, which is referred to as focused coding (Saldaña, 2016 cited in Carmichael and Cunningham, 2017). This phase grouped together similar quotes based on their codes, which exposed the common themes and concepts among each interview.
Once codes and themes were clearly identified, the primary researcher used theoretical memo writing (Lapan, Quartaroli, and Riemer, 2011) to further make sense of emerging ideas, theories, connections and questions (Carmichael and Cunningham, 2017). This information was the basis for the formation of themes.
Pre and post photo elicitation responses were recorded. Each participant was asked to describe their feelings about their current body image before and after exposer to the images and videos of each influencer. These statements were compared and labeled under one of four categories, “unchanged positive,” “unchanged negative,” “negative change,” or “positive change.” Participants answers were labeled “unchanged positive” if there was minimal to no difference in response pre to post photo elicitation and both responses were representative of a positive body image. Participants answers were labeled “unchanged negative” if there was minimal to no difference in response pre to post photo elicitation and both responses were representative of a negative body image. Participants answers were labeled “negative change” if their body image shifted negatively from their original response, which would have been representative of a positive body image. Finally, participants answers were labeled “positive change” if their body image shifted positively from their original response, which would have been representative of a negative body image.
Results
Body Image Before Photo Elicitation
Prior to exposure to images and videos of the top three female Instagram fitness influencers the participants were asked to describe their relationship with their own personal body image as well as to describe their current feelings towards their body image in the present moment. All five participants (A,B,C,D,E) used words such as confident, comfortable, content, happy and good to describe how they were presently feeling about their bodies. Participant A and C admitted that they have good days and bad days when it comes to their body image, but the good days are more prevalent than the bad. Both A and B also concluded that on the day of interview they were feeling confident and comfortable. Participant C and E spoke about their body image in a way that described their bodies function rather than image. Participant C said, “I love my body, I love what I am able to do in it…I feel good.” Participant E also said that she “feel[s] good” and her focus is “to be really healthy, whether that is nutrition, exercise, or mental health.”
The fifth participant (B) said that she felt confident, however she also felt “more anxious than ever.” The anxiety of her body image stemmed from having lost weight recently and is concerned the weight may come back because she has also recently graduated from being a collegiate athlete.
Body Image After Photo Elicitation
After exposure to the nine images and videos selected as part on the interview, the five participants were asked to describe their current body image in the present moment. Participants C and D both said they felt “fine” and that their body image was not affected. Participant C said, “It didn’t make me feel anyway about my body I think because I'm aware how unrealistic and posed everything is.” Participant D explained that she is happy with where she is at and that her relationship with her body is healthy. She explained that she is “understanding of the fact that Instagram isn’t real and [she] view[s] fitness pretty differently because [she is] an athlete.”
Participant B’s response was that she felt “pretty good,” however after seeing the fitness influencer content she “should eat a salad for dinner.” Participant A and E felt more unsure of themselves after photo elicitation. Participant A admitted to feeling “insecure” and referenced specific body parts, like her abs and butt, while saying, “I’ll probably never look like [those influencers].” Finally, participant E questioned whether what she saw from the images and videos is “attainable” or “real” and said that although “it doesn’t match what I look like I wish it did a little bit.”
TABLE 1: Body Image Before and After Photo Elicitation Categorization
PARTICIPANT | BEFORE | AFTER | CATEGORY |
A | Comfortable, but has good days and bad days. | Insecure. Pointing out specific body parts. | Negative Change |
B | Confident, but anxious. | Pretty good, but conscious of diet. "Should eat a salad for dinner." | Negative Unchanged |
C | Confident and love's her body, but has good days and bad days. | Feels fine. Aware that images are "unrealistic" and "posed." | Positive Unchanged |
D | Happy and content with body image. | Feels fine. Happy with body image. Conscious that "Instagram isn’t real." | Positive Unchanged |
E | Good where she is at. Focus on being healthy (nutrition, exercise, and mental health). | Questioning integrity and attainability of images. Still desire to look like the influencers. | Negative Change |
Discussion
Before and After Photo Elicitation
Two participants (A,E) had a negative shift in their body image and were therefore categorized as “negative change.” Before photo elicitation they felt positively about their body image, however, exposure to fitness influencer content caused the participants body image to be affected negatively. Despite feeling good and comfortable with their body image initially, they were not immune to the negative effects female fitness influencers may have on body image.
Although, participant A and E initially described their body image to be positive, their answers were not as strongly positive in comparison to participants C and D, who remained “positively unchanged.” Both participant C and D made implications that they are highly aware Instagram “isn’t real,” is “unrealistic,” and “posed.” This understanding and realization may allow these participants to be more accepting of themselves and refrain from comparison to the influencers. Therefore, this allows them to remain uninfluenced in their perception of their own body image.
Participant C was the only participant to have an initial negative body image and remain “negatively unchanged.” Although she used “confident” to describe her body image before photo elicitation, she immediately followed up by saying she is also anxious, “more anxious than [she] has ever been before.” She went on to talk about her recent weight loss and said there is “a little voice in my head saying those [pounds] can come back… you can't slip now.” She may even be unaware of her internally negative body image. She had a similar response post photo elicitation in terms of saying she feels “pretty good,” however she alludes to the fact she is judging her body negatively by saying she “should eat a salad for dinner.” Therefore, both pre and post responses were negative. This reinforces the effect that the fitness influencer content had on participant A and B’s, which was a negative impact on body image.
Credibility, Reliability and Authenticity
Credibility, reliability, and authenticity came into question often during the photo elicitation portion of the interview. Prior to photo elicitation participants were asked what comes to mind when they think about fitness influencers. Participant A said she thinks about “a lot of misrepresentation” and “misleading” information. Additionally, participant D felt influencers only post “things they want you to see.”
During the photo elicitation portion of the interview participants described photos, videos, and profiles as “posed,” “touched up,” “exaggerated,” “unrealistic,” “orchestrated,” and “calculated.” Participant A commented, “I've started to realize that what I see on Instagram is very posed and intentional.” Although all three influencers credibility and authenticity were questioned, two of the three influencers received more comments from participants about misrepresentation of health and fitness than the third. Sommer Ray, the number one fitness influencer and Jen Selter the number three fitness influencer (Geyser, 2021 and Western, 2022) were the two that participants speculated about most. Several comments were made by all participants saying, they do not strike them as someone who represents fitness, but rather an “Instagram model.”
Furthermore, all influencers were criticized about the message they are sending to their audience. Participant E mentioned that Sommer Ray’s workout video gave a “false representation” of what it takes to be fit. Participant D said Jen Selter’s content was “not educational” and heavily “focused on the end result” and “aesthetic part of fitness.” Participant A commented on Kayla Itsines, the number two fitness influencer (Geyser, 2021 and Western, 2022), photo saying that the message focused on “appearance” and falsely represented the “grittiness” aspect of fitness, but rather portrayed fitness as something “pretty.” The participants seemed to understand that social media is a façade and that not all content is realistic. Participants felt the influencers do not send a message that is true and authentic.
Athletic Experience vs Fitness Influencer Content
Since a large part of collegiate athletics is focused on being fit to compete in their sport, participants were asked to compare their athletic experiences as college athletes to the content that fitness influencers produce. All participants responses gave the impression that there were almost no similarities to the way they trained as athletes in comparison to what influencers promote to their followers. Participant A felt that “it pretty much does not relate at all” and participant B explained that “fitness influencers are completely different than any type of strength and conditioning coach [she has] ever come across.” Participants felt fitness influencers focus more on the aesthetic aspects of fitness, whereas their focus as athletes was on performance. The athlete’s fitness goals were to be faster, stronger, to improve their sport skills and to prevent injury. The participant’s felt their goals as collegiate athletes were not reflected by the content that fitness influencers produce.
After each image or video shown to the participants they were asked to give their opinion on the message each photo, workout video, or profile sent to its audience. Their responses reflected one major theme, the overall message fitness influencers communicate through their content is that fitness is all about appearance and physique. The participants felt the images and videos shown to them were heavily focused on the aesthetic portion of fitness and lacked emphasis on the more important aspects such as, speed, agility, strength, endurance, mobility, and injury prevention. Participants said that the content was “body centric” and “focused more on what you look like” and the “physical aspects” rather than promoting a “functional” or “health” goal.
Furthermore, there were several comments about follower expectations. Participant A felt the content has the potential to make followers feel negatively about themselves by saying that the content promotes the idea that “the most important part about fitness is looking a certain way, having a big butt and being beautiful, and if you're not fit enough or you're not working out, you're not going to be beautiful enough.” Participants felt that the message sent by the fitness influencers may convey to their audience that attaining a certain body type will bring “happiness,” provide “confidence” and ensure a “lavish lifestyle.” Participant C said that “it doesn’t seem like a body positive look.” This type of content can lead consumers to view themselves negatively by comparing their own image and lifestyle to the influencers they praise.
Conflicting Inner Dialogue & Comparison Despite Confidence in Athletic Abilities
The participants seemed to feel more confident about themselves when shown the workout videos from each influencer. They felt that the videos were at times laughable because it didn’t “seem like real fitness” (Participant A) in comparison to the type of workouts they are exposed to as competitive athletes. Participant C said it made her feel strong because she knew she could easily complete the workouts produced by the influencers. Participant A and E made similar comments. Furthermore, participant C said, “from an athlete perspective, it's still a little disappointing.. seeing the exercises that [the influencer] is doing…it seems like the point of [the workout] is to tone or do something very specific that relates to appearance rather than a fitness goal.” The participants took an unexpected, however, positive approach to their interpretation of the workout videos.
Despite the participants awareness of the lack of authenticity and education of the influencers and the participants confidence in their athletic abilities, they still compared themselves to the influencers. Most participants seemed to have a conflicting inner dialogue during the photo elicitation. Participant A summed it up best:
From an athlete’s perspective looking like she's like not working super hard. And yet, she looks a certain way whereas I worked super hard as an athlete lifting heavy weights and all this stuff. And I never looked that way. So, I think it creates a conflicting message for me. Like, yeah, I know that maybe I can do that. And maybe I worked harder, but I still don't look that way. It's frustrating.
There is a clear acknowledgment that the way athletes train is different, and their goals are different in comparison to fitness influencers, however, this understanding does not hinder the athlete’s innate reaction to compare themselves to others. This phenomenon is best explained by social comparison theory. Athletes are not immune to this occurrence, no matter their education and self-awareness.
Participants made a significant number of comments comparing themselves, specifically their body image to the images and videos they were shown. In response to one of the photos, participant A said, “I’ll never be able to look as desirable or as good as her.” Participant B commented on the lifestyle of one of the influencers saying it “makes me feel like I don’t travel enough.” When shown the profile of one of the influencers participant C felt that maybe she should workout more. Participant D specifically pointed out a body part commenting “I wish my stomach was a little more like that.” Finally, Participant E blatantly admitted to comparing herself to one of the workout videos saying, “my butt definitely wouldn’t look like that in those leggings…there’s just an immediate comparison.” These are just a handful of the many comments made by the participants. Some made more comments than others, some made more direct comparisons than other, but regardless of how often or how specific, all athletes compared themselves at some point during the interview.
Positive Impact of Fitness Influencer Content
Although, the participants did make clear the potential negative impact fitness influencers can have on their followers through misinformation, inauthenticity, and negative comparison, there were still comments made by the participants that suggest the potential for positive impacts. Prior to photo elicitation participants were asked about the impacts they believe fitness influencers have on body image, while much of their responses focused on negative impacts participants B and D offered insight on the ways in which influencers may be helpful rather than harmful. However, this was contingent on finding the “right” influencer. Participant B said she felt some positivity, but also frustration when it came to fitness influencers because if an individual can find the “right influencers that are there for the right reasons to actually benefit athletes and not just show off their own bodies” then they could make a positive impact, but deciphering which influencers send a more positive message can be challenging. While it may be challenging it is not impossible, as there was one influencer that was included in the photo elicitation portion that seemed to relay a more realistic and encouraging message in comparison to the other two. This influencer was Kayla Itsines, the number two female Instagram fitness
influencer.
During the content analysis it was obvious that there was a difference between Kayla Itsines’ content and the other two influencers, Jen Selter and Sommer Ray. Kayla focused more heavily on providing workout ideas, nutrition advice, and encouraging quotes. Jen and Sommer projected a more sexualized approach to fitness and used their bodies to attract followers’ attention. While Kayla did receive comments from the participants about her promotion of the “thin ideal” and creating an unrealistic image of what exercise looks like, she also received several comments that her content was “motivating,” “inspiring,” and “more realistic” than Jen and Sommer. Participant D even said that her workout video was “educational.” Participant E said she made the workout “accessible.” Participant C thinks her overall message “promotes a healthy lifestyle or balanced lifestyle.” Furthermore, across all participants there was agreement that Kayla had a clear fitness brand that had the intention of showing its audience that fitness can be fun and that exercise can be done from anywhere. However, positive comments were contingent on the comparison to the other influencers. Participants would make observations and say things like she is “more relatable” or “more fitness oriented.” As in more than Sommer and Jen, but not necessarily relatable or realistic in general.
Additionally, when asked which of the three influencers the participants would choose to follow they unanimously chose Kayla Itsines. When asked to give their reasoning the participants still used comparative language. For example, participant A’s reasoning for choosing Kayla was that “in terms of fitness, she actually posted real workouts and felt more relatable or realistic than the other ones.” Participant B said, “I think when it comes to athletes wanting to be influenced by people who really understand their fitness, we're looking for people that understand that that's kind of the priority and I think Kayla comes closest to that.” The participants did acknowledge that they are more inclined to follow fitness influencers that are more aligned with their athletic experiences. Kayla Itsines fit this role for the athletes in this study, however, this was relative. It should also be noted that any positive feelings the participants may have had towards any of the influencers was not reflected in how fitness influencers affected their attitudes towards their own body image.
Practical Implications
Athletes may be equipped to be more resilient because of their understanding of fitness from an athlete’s perspective. However, female athletes are not immune to the social comparison phenomenon. Therefore, they are also subject to the negative affects fitness influencer content can have on its audience. Athletes’ fitness goals are focused on performance, whereas fitness influencers tend to be more focused on aesthetic. Regardless of an athlete’s education in fitness and understanding that fitness influencer content is not relevant to their athletic performance, athletes can still be affected through comparison. Athletes work hard to be faster, stronger, and more skilled at their sport. The sports media often equates elite athleticism with physique; therefore, athletes may have an idea of what they “should” look like. This athletic toned ideal body image is similar to the body image ideals portrayed by fitness influencers. Therefore, when an athlete is exposed to fitness influencer content that portrays that ideal it can make them question themselves, their abilities, and their body image. Athletes can be affected by what social media projects fitness “should” look like, despite knowing that as athletes their goal is not to look a certain way through fitness but, rather to perform a certain way through fitness. Furthermore, the participants ability to recognize a lack of authenticity from the influencer content also did not make them immune to comparison.
In this study, athletic experience did not have a significant effect on the participants shift in feelings towards their body image pre to post photo elicitation. Additionally, neither did their ability to point out the unrealistic, posed, photoshopped images shown to them. Instead, their initial responses and attitudes before photo elicitation towards their own body image may affect their attitudes after exposure to fitness influencer content. Only two out of the five participants, C and D, remained positively unchanged. Participants C and D used language that was more affirmative of how the felt. Participant C said she felt confident and loved her body. Participant D said she was happy and content. This type of language had more conviction than participants A, B and E who used phrases such as, “comfortable,” “confident, but anxious,” and “good where I’m at.” Although these phrases do have mostly positive connotations, they are not as convincing or powerful as participant C and D’s responses. Therefore, A, B, and E were more vulnerable to the negative effects of fitness influencer content.
If given a choice athletes prefer exposure to content that is authentic, realistic, and relatable. This type of content can have positive effects on its audience such as, giving motivation, promoting diversity, accessibility to exercise, and cultivating a healthy relationship with fitness. When asked which of the three influencers they had seen during the photo elicitation they would choose to follow, all participants unanimously chose Kayla Itsines on the basis that she felt the most realistic and most closely aligned with their fitness goals as athletes. However, this decision was made only by comparison to the other two. Kayla Itsines content, while more positive than Jen and Sommer, still promoted an unrealistic body image ideal.
Conclusion
This study revealed the effects that Instagram fitness influencer content on female athletes’ attitudes towards their own body image. The interviews revealed potential for both positive and negative effects, however, majority of the participants responses reflected a negative connotation. Furthermore, female athletes are not immune to social comparison regarding fitness influencers despite their knowledge of fitness through athletics and understanding of the façade put up by Instagram influencers. This comparison had different effects on each participant. The participants shift in feelings towards their body image before and after was determined by their initial response before photo elicitation. The athletes who gave unwaveringly confident answers remained satisfied with their body image even after exposure to fitness influencer content. The athletes who initially answered with more hesitation about their body image were affected negatively after exposure.
Limitations & Future Research
Limitations of this study includes small sample size of both participants and influencers used for the content analysis and photo elicitation. A sample of five female collegiate athletes cannot represent the collegiate female athlete population as a whole, however, this study does provide insight into how Instagram fitness influencer may affect this population. Additionally, a more in-depth content analysis that includes a wider range of fitness influencers would create a better understanding of the social media fitness influencer climate.
Furthermore, besides increasing sample size, future research should explore the effects that body positive fitness influencers have on female athlete’s body image. This study revealed some potential for positive influence; however, this is contingent on the type of content the influencer posts. Similar research should be conducted, but only using a content analysis of fitness influencers who promote authentic and body inclusive content. Additionally, it may be of interest to identify the social media habits of collegiate female athletes.
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